Chemical and isotopic composition of rainwater in the eastern Yucatan peninsula, Mexico (edited by Dr. Iván Y. Hernández Paniagua)
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Abstract
Given that rain is the component of precipitation that reaches the surface of the earth, and aiming to contribute to the global efforts of rainwater monitoring, we present information regarding the origin of ions and their relationship with isotopic patterns and the source of moisture for rainwater in the Mexican Caribbean, which not only may be useful for pollution and atmospheric studies, but also for estimating groundwater recharges, understanding dust nuisances, and offering information about water quality for rainwater harvesting. In this paper, we describe the chemical composition of rainwater in terms of major ions, isotopic composition, and the most probable sources of moisture in the Caribbean coastal zone of Mexico, considering the three main climatic seasons in this area. The chemistry of rainwater displayed a noticeable influence from sea-salt spray, land-blown dust, and anthropogenic impacts such as agriculture and biomass burning. We identified the predominant terrestrial origin of calcium, namely anthropogenic contributions of sulfates and nitrates, plus potassium from sea spray and anthropogenic emissions. The local meteoric water line is δ2H = 8.2 δ18O + 13.8 (R² = 0.9601) suggesting enrichment due to evaporative losses, various moisture sources and local climatic effects. Although isotope composition was not different by site, it was by season, as opposed to water chemistry. We conclude that the water chemistry responds to the local conditions of the air column below the clouds, while the isotope composition is influenced by the origin of moisture and the physical conditions in which water evaporates and condenses as well.
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References
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Báez AP, Belmont RD, Padilla HG. 1997. Chemical composition of precipitation at two sampling sites in Mexico: A 7-year study. Atmospheric Environment 3:915-925.
Beddows P. 2004. Yucatan phreas, Mexico. In: Gunn J, ed. Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science. New York: Taylor & Francis, 1677-1682.
Bravo HA, Saavedra MIR, Sánchez PA, Torres RJ, Granada LMM. 2000. Chemical composition of precipitation in a Mexican Maya region. Atmospheric Environment 34:1197-1204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00305-2
Burnett AW, Mullins, HT, Patterson WP. 2004. Relationship between atmospheric circulation and winter precipitation δ18O in central New York State. Geophysical research letters 31: L22209. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021089
Cejudo E, Acosta‐González G, Leal‐Bautista RM. 2022. Regional meteoric water line of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Geoscience Data Journal 9:124-130. https://doi.org/10.1002/gdj3.123
Cerón RMB, Padilla HG, Belmont RD, Torres MCB, Garcı́a RM, Báez AP. 2002. Rainwater chemical composition at the end of the mid-summer drought in the Caribbean shore of the Yucatan Peninsula. Atmospheric Environment 36:2367-2374. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00169-3
Chandra Mouli P, Venkata Mohan S, Jayarama Reddy S. 2005. Rainwater Chemistry at a Regional Representative Urban Site: Influence of Terrestrial Sources on Ionic Composition. Atmospheric Environment 39: 999–1008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.10.036
Clark ID, Fritz P. 1997. Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. Florida: CRC Press.
CONAGUA. 2023. Glosario Técnico Available at https://smn.conagua.gob.mx/es/smn/glosario (accessed 2023 December 18)
Dansgaard W. 1964. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16:436-468. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v16i4.8993
Das R, Evan A, Lawrence D. 2013. Contributions of long‐distance dust transport to atmospheric P inputs in the Yucatan Peninsula. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 27:167-175. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GB004420
Davie T. 2008. Fundamentals of hydrology. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.
Evans NP, Bauska TK, Gázquez-Sánchez F, Brenner M, Curtis JH, Hodell DA. 2018. Quantification of drought during the collapse of the classic Maya civilization. Science 361: 498-501. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aas9871
Furl C, Sharif H, Zeitler JW, El Hassan A, Joseph J. 2018. Hydrometeorology of the catastrophic Blanco river flood in South Texas, May 2015. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 15:90-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.12.001
Galewsky J, Hurley JV. 2010. An advection‐condensation model for subtropical water vapor isotopic ratios. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 115: D161166. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD013651.
Galloway JN, Likens GE. 1978. The collection of precipitation for chemical analysis. Tellus 30:71-82. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v30i1.10318
García-Santos S, Sánchez-Murillo R, Peña-Paz T, Chirinos-Escobar MJ, Hernández-Ortiz JO, Mejía-Escobar EJ, Ortega L. 2022. Water stable isotopes reveal a complex rainfall to groundwater connectivity in central Honduras. Science of the Total Environment 844:156941. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156941
Guan H, Zhang X, Skrzypek G, Sun Z, Xu X. 2013. Deuterium excess variations of rainfall events in a coastal area of South Australia and its relationship with synoptic weather systems and atmospheric moisture sources. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 118(2):1123-1138. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50137.
Guo J, Liang X, Leung LR. 2004. Impacts of different precipitation data sources on water budgets. Journal of Hydrology, 298: 311-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.08.020
Hiscock KM. 2005. Hydrogeology principles and practice. Oxford UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Hydrological Information System (Sistema de Información Hidrológica SIH-Mexico). Available at https://sih.conagua.gob.mx/, https://app.conagua.gob.mx/sistemasdeagua/, (accessed 24 September 2023)
Keene WC, Pszenny AA, Galloway JN, Hawley ME. 1986. Sea‐salt corrections and interpretation of constituent ratios in marine precipitation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 91:6647-6658. https://doi.org/10.1029/JD091iD06p06647
Keresztesi Á, Birsan MV, Nita IA, Bodor Z, Szép R. 2019. Assessing the neutralisation, wet deposition and source contributions of the precipitation chemistry over Europe during 2000–2017. Environmental Sciences Europe 31: 50. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-019-0234-9
Ladino LA, Stetzer O, Hattendorf B, Günther D, Croft B and Lohmann U. 2011. Experimental study of collection efficiencies of submicron aerosols with cloud droplets. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 68 (9), 1853-1864. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-11-012.1
Lefticariu M, Perry EC, Ward WC, Lefticariu L. 2006. Post-Chicxulub depositional and diagenetic history of the northwestern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Sedimentary Geology 183:51-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.09.008
Mæller D. 1990. The Na/Cl ratio in rainwater and the seasalt chloride cycle, Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology 42:254-262. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v42i3.15216
Met Office 2023. Rain. Available at https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/rain#:~:text=At%20it%20simplest%2C%20rain%20is,more%20water%20and%20becoming%20larger (accessed 2023 December 19)
Modon Valappil NK, Mohan Viswanathan P, Hamza V, Sabarathinam C. 2022. Isoscapes to address the regional precipitation trends in the equatorial region of Southeast Asia. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 127:103159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103159
NOAA. 2024. Low Clouds. Available at https://www.weather.gov/key/low_clouds (accessed 2024 January 19).
Nuijens L, Serikov I, Hirsch L, Lonitz K, Stevens B. 2014. The distribution and variability of low‐level cloud in the North Atlantic trades. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 140: 2364-2374. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2307
Oduber F, Calvo AI, Castro A, Blanco-Alegre C, Alves C, Barata J, Nunes T, Lucarelli F, Nava S, Calzolai G, Cerqueira M. 2020. Chemical composition of rainwater under two events of aerosol transport: A Saharan dust outbreak and wildfires. Science of the Total Environment 734:139202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139202
Palani S, Balasubramanian R, Tkalich P. 2012. A 3-D model on the possible role of atmospheric deposition in tropical coastal eutrophication. Contribution to Marine Sciences 11-21.
Peikam EN, Jalali M. 2021. Chemical composition of rainwater at an urban and two rural stations in the west of Iran, Hamedan. Environmental Earth Science 80:605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09865-3
Pérez-Suárez M, Cetina-Alcalá VM, Aldrete A, Fenn ME, Landois-Palencia LL. 2006. Química de la precipitación pluvial en dos bosques de la cuenca de la Ciudad de México. Agrociencia 40:239-248.
Raga GB, Ladino LA, Baumgardner D, Ramirez-Romero C, Córdoba F, Alvarez-Ospina H, Rosas D, Amador T, Miranda J, Rosas I, Jaramillo A. 2021. ADABBOY: African dust and biomass burning over Yucatan. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 102:E1543–E1556. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0172.1
Rahim MF, Pal D, Ariya PA. Physicochemical studies of aerosols at Montreal Trudeau Airport: The importance of airborne nanoparticles containing metal contaminants. 201. Environmental pollution. 246:734-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.12.050
Ramírez Lara E, Miranda Guardiola R, Gracia Vásquez Y, Balderas Rentería I, Bravo Álvarez H, Sosa Echeverría R, Sánchez Alvarez P, Alarcón Jiménez A, Torres MC, Kahl J. 2010. Chemical composition of rainwater in northeastern México. Atmósfera 23:213-224.
Ramirez-Villegas J, Challinor A. 2012. Assessing relevant climate data for agricultural applications. Agricultural and forest meteorology 161:26-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.03.015
Rodriguez-Gomez C, Ramirez-Romero C, Cordoba F, Raga GB, Salinas E, Martinez L, Rosas I, Quintana ET, Maldonado LA, Rosas D, Amador T. 2020. Characterization of culturable airborne microorganisms in the Yucatan Peninsula. Atmospheric Environment. 223:117183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117183
Salve PR, Maurya A, Wate SR, Devotta S. 2008. Chemical Composition of Major Ions in Rainwater. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 80:242–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-007-9353-x
Sánchez-Murillo R, Durán-Quesada AM, Esquivel-Hernández G, Rojas-Cantillano D, Birkel C, Welsh K, Sánchez-Llull M, Alonso-Hernández CM, Tetzlaff D, Soulsby C, Boll J. 2019. Deciphering key processes controlling rainfall isotopic variability during extreme tropical cyclones. Nature Communications 10: 4321. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12062-3
Smart PL, Beddows PA, Coke J, Doerr S, Smith S, Whitaker FF. 2006. Cave development on the Caribbean coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Quintana Roo, Mexico. In: Harmon RS, Wicks CM. Perspectives on Karst Geomorphology, Hydrology, and Geochemistry - A Tribute Volume to Derek C. Ford and William B. White. Colorado: GSA Books Science Editor, 105-128.
Vásquez Morera V, Solís RA, Brenes JPS, Hernández GE, González JV. 2012. Composición química del agua de lluvia y de niebla recolectada en la reserva biológica Monteverde. Uniciencia 26:51-64.
Zeng J, Han G, Wu Q, Tang Y. 2020. Effects of agricultural alkaline substances on reducing the rainwater acidification: Insight from chemical compositions and calcium isotopes in a karst forests area. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 290:106782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106782
Zhang M, Wang S, Wu F, Yuan X, Zhang Y. 2007. Chemical compositions of wet precipitation and anthropogenic influences at a developing urban site in southeastern China. Atmospheric Research 84:311-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.09.003
Zunckel M, Saizar C, Zarauz J. 2003. Rainwater composition in northeast Uruguay. Atmospheric Environment 37:1601-1611. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00007-4
Aggarwal P, Romatschke U, Araguas-Araguas L, Belachew D, Longstaffe F, Berg P, Schumacher C, Funk A. 2016. Proportions of convective and stratiform precipitation revealed in water isotope ratios. Nature Geoscience 9: 624–629. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2739
Báez A, Belmont R, García R, Padilla H, Torres MDC. 2007. Chemical composition of rainwater collected at a southwest site of Mexico City, Mexico. Atmospheric Research, 86:61-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2007.03.005
Báez AP, Belmont RD, Padilla HG. 1997. Chemical composition of precipitation at two sampling sites in Mexico: A 7-year study. Atmospheric Environment 3:915-925.
Beddows P. 2004. Yucatan phreas, Mexico. In: Gunn J, ed. Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science. New York: Taylor & Francis, 1677-1682.
Bravo HA, Saavedra MIR, Sánchez PA, Torres RJ, Granada LMM. 2000. Chemical composition of precipitation in a Mexican Maya region. Atmospheric Environment 34:1197-1204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00305-2
Burnett AW, Mullins, HT, Patterson WP. 2004. Relationship between atmospheric circulation and winter precipitation δ18O in central New York State. Geophysical research letters 31: L22209. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021089
Cejudo E, Acosta‐González G, Leal‐Bautista RM. 2022. Regional meteoric water line of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Geoscience Data Journal 9:124-130. https://doi.org/10.1002/gdj3.123
Cerón RMB, Padilla HG, Belmont RD, Torres MCB, Garcı́a RM, Báez AP. 2002. Rainwater chemical composition at the end of the mid-summer drought in the Caribbean shore of the Yucatan Peninsula. Atmospheric Environment 36:2367-2374. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00169-3
Chandra Mouli P, Venkata Mohan S, Jayarama Reddy S. 2005. Rainwater Chemistry at a Regional Representative Urban Site: Influence of Terrestrial Sources on Ionic Composition. Atmospheric Environment 39: 999–1008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.10.036
Clark ID, Fritz P. 1997. Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. Florida: CRC Press.
CONAGUA. 2023. Glosario Técnico Available at https://smn.conagua.gob.mx/es/smn/glosario (accessed 2023 December 18)
Dansgaard W. 1964. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16:436-468. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v16i4.8993
Das R, Evan A, Lawrence D. 2013. Contributions of long‐distance dust transport to atmospheric P inputs in the Yucatan Peninsula. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 27:167-175. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GB004420
Davie T. 2008. Fundamentals of hydrology. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.
Evans NP, Bauska TK, Gázquez-Sánchez F, Brenner M, Curtis JH, Hodell DA. 2018. Quantification of drought during the collapse of the classic Maya civilization. Science 361: 498-501. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aas9871
Furl C, Sharif H, Zeitler JW, El Hassan A, Joseph J. 2018. Hydrometeorology of the catastrophic Blanco river flood in South Texas, May 2015. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 15:90-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.12.001
Galewsky J, Hurley JV. 2010. An advection‐condensation model for subtropical water vapor isotopic ratios. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 115: D161166. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD013651.
Galloway JN, Likens GE. 1978. The collection of precipitation for chemical analysis. Tellus 30:71-82. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v30i1.10318
García-Santos S, Sánchez-Murillo R, Peña-Paz T, Chirinos-Escobar MJ, Hernández-Ortiz JO, Mejía-Escobar EJ, Ortega L. 2022. Water stable isotopes reveal a complex rainfall to groundwater connectivity in central Honduras. Science of the Total Environment 844:156941. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156941
Guan H, Zhang X, Skrzypek G, Sun Z, Xu X. 2013. Deuterium excess variations of rainfall events in a coastal area of South Australia and its relationship with synoptic weather systems and atmospheric moisture sources. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 118(2):1123-1138. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50137.
Guo J, Liang X, Leung LR. 2004. Impacts of different precipitation data sources on water budgets. Journal of Hydrology, 298: 311-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.08.020
Hiscock KM. 2005. Hydrogeology principles and practice. Oxford UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Hydrological Information System (Sistema de Información Hidrológica SIH-Mexico). Available at https://sih.conagua.gob.mx/, https://app.conagua.gob.mx/sistemasdeagua/, (accessed 24 September 2023)
Keene WC, Pszenny AA, Galloway JN, Hawley ME. 1986. Sea‐salt corrections and interpretation of constituent ratios in marine precipitation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 91:6647-6658. https://doi.org/10.1029/JD091iD06p06647
Keresztesi Á, Birsan MV, Nita IA, Bodor Z, Szép R. 2019. Assessing the neutralisation, wet deposition and source contributions of the precipitation chemistry over Europe during 2000–2017. Environmental Sciences Europe 31: 50. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-019-0234-9
Ladino LA, Stetzer O, Hattendorf B, Günther D, Croft B and Lohmann U. 2011. Experimental study of collection efficiencies of submicron aerosols with cloud droplets. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 68 (9), 1853-1864. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-11-012.1
Lefticariu M, Perry EC, Ward WC, Lefticariu L. 2006. Post-Chicxulub depositional and diagenetic history of the northwestern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Sedimentary Geology 183:51-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.09.008
Mæller D. 1990. The Na/Cl ratio in rainwater and the seasalt chloride cycle, Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology 42:254-262. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v42i3.15216
Met Office 2023. Rain. Available at https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/rain#:~:text=At%20it%20simplest%2C%20rain%20is,more%20water%20and%20becoming%20larger (accessed 2023 December 19)
Modon Valappil NK, Mohan Viswanathan P, Hamza V, Sabarathinam C. 2022. Isoscapes to address the regional precipitation trends in the equatorial region of Southeast Asia. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 127:103159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103159
NOAA. 2024. Low Clouds. Available at https://www.weather.gov/key/low_clouds (accessed 2024 January 19).
Nuijens L, Serikov I, Hirsch L, Lonitz K, Stevens B. 2014. The distribution and variability of low‐level cloud in the North Atlantic trades. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 140: 2364-2374. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2307
Oduber F, Calvo AI, Castro A, Blanco-Alegre C, Alves C, Barata J, Nunes T, Lucarelli F, Nava S, Calzolai G, Cerqueira M. 2020. Chemical composition of rainwater under two events of aerosol transport: A Saharan dust outbreak and wildfires. Science of the Total Environment 734:139202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139202
Palani S, Balasubramanian R, Tkalich P. 2012. A 3-D model on the possible role of atmospheric deposition in tropical coastal eutrophication. Contribution to Marine Sciences 11-21.
Peikam EN, Jalali M. 2021. Chemical composition of rainwater at an urban and two rural stations in the west of Iran, Hamedan. Environmental Earth Science 80:605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09865-3
Pérez-Suárez M, Cetina-Alcalá VM, Aldrete A, Fenn ME, Landois-Palencia LL. 2006. Química de la precipitación pluvial en dos bosques de la cuenca de la Ciudad de México. Agrociencia 40:239-248.
Raga GB, Ladino LA, Baumgardner D, Ramirez-Romero C, Córdoba F, Alvarez-Ospina H, Rosas D, Amador T, Miranda J, Rosas I, Jaramillo A. 2021. ADABBOY: African dust and biomass burning over Yucatan. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 102:E1543–E1556. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0172.1
Rahim MF, Pal D, Ariya PA. Physicochemical studies of aerosols at Montreal Trudeau Airport: The importance of airborne nanoparticles containing metal contaminants. 201. Environmental pollution. 246:734-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.12.050
Ramírez Lara E, Miranda Guardiola R, Gracia Vásquez Y, Balderas Rentería I, Bravo Álvarez H, Sosa Echeverría R, Sánchez Alvarez P, Alarcón Jiménez A, Torres MC, Kahl J. 2010. Chemical composition of rainwater in northeastern México. Atmósfera 23:213-224.
Ramirez-Villegas J, Challinor A. 2012. Assessing relevant climate data for agricultural applications. Agricultural and forest meteorology 161:26-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.03.015
Rodriguez-Gomez C, Ramirez-Romero C, Cordoba F, Raga GB, Salinas E, Martinez L, Rosas I, Quintana ET, Maldonado LA, Rosas D, Amador T. 2020. Characterization of culturable airborne microorganisms in the Yucatan Peninsula. Atmospheric Environment. 223:117183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117183
Salve PR, Maurya A, Wate SR, Devotta S. 2008. Chemical Composition of Major Ions in Rainwater. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 80:242–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-007-9353-x
Sánchez-Murillo R, Durán-Quesada AM, Esquivel-Hernández G, Rojas-Cantillano D, Birkel C, Welsh K, Sánchez-Llull M, Alonso-Hernández CM, Tetzlaff D, Soulsby C, Boll J. 2019. Deciphering key processes controlling rainfall isotopic variability during extreme tropical cyclones. Nature Communications 10: 4321. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12062-3
Smart PL, Beddows PA, Coke J, Doerr S, Smith S, Whitaker FF. 2006. Cave development on the Caribbean coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Quintana Roo, Mexico. In: Harmon RS, Wicks CM. Perspectives on Karst Geomorphology, Hydrology, and Geochemistry - A Tribute Volume to Derek C. Ford and William B. White. Colorado: GSA Books Science Editor, 105-128.
Vásquez Morera V, Solís RA, Brenes JPS, Hernández GE, González JV. 2012. Composición química del agua de lluvia y de niebla recolectada en la reserva biológica Monteverde. Uniciencia 26:51-64.
Zeng J, Han G, Wu Q, Tang Y. 2020. Effects of agricultural alkaline substances on reducing the rainwater acidification: Insight from chemical compositions and calcium isotopes in a karst forests area. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 290:106782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106782
Zhang M, Wang S, Wu F, Yuan X, Zhang Y. 2007. Chemical compositions of wet precipitation and anthropogenic influences at a developing urban site in southeastern China. Atmospheric Research 84:311-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.09.003
Zunckel M, Saizar C, Zarauz J. 2003. Rainwater composition in northeast Uruguay. Atmospheric Environment 37:1601-1611. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00007-4